Microbiology: Microbes in Daily Use 1

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A microorganism (from the Greek: μικρός, mikrós, "small" and ὀργανισμός, organismós, "organism") or microbe is a microscopic organism, which may be a single cellor multicellular organism. The study of microorganisms is called microbiology, a subject that began with Anton van Leeuwenhoek's discovery of microorganisms in 1675, using a microscope of his own design. Microorganisms are very diverse; they include all of the , namely the bacteria and archaea; and various forms of eukaryotes, comprising the protozoa, fungi, algae, microscopic plants (green algae), and animals such as rotifers and planarians. Some microbiologists also classify viruses as microorganisms, but others consider these as nonliving.Most microorganisms are microscopic, but there are some like Thiomargarita namibiensis, which are macroscopic and visible to the naked eye. Microorganisms live in every part of the biosphere including soil, hot springs, on the ocean floor, high in the atmosphere and deep inside rocks within the Earth's crust (see also endolith). Microorganisms are crucial to nutrient recycling in ecosystems as they act as decomposers. As some microorganisms can fix nitrogen, they are a vital part of the nitrogen cycle, and recent studies indicate that airborne microbes may play a role in precipitation and weather.

 Microbe is a term for tiny creatures that individually are too small to be seen with the unaided eye. Microbes include bacteria (back-tear-ee-uh), archaea (are-key-uh), fungi (fun-jeye) and protists (pro-tists). You've probably heard of bacteria and fungi before. Archaea are bacteria-like creatures that have some traits not found in any true bacteria. Protists include primitive algae (al-gee), amoebas (ah-me-buhs), slime molds and protozoa (pro-toe-zoh-uh). We can also include viruses (vye-rus-is) as a major type of microbe, though there is a debate as to whether viruses can be considered living creatures or not. 

Microscopic Worlds Microbes are extremely small, and can only be seen with a microscope. They are smaller than a human red blood cell. Millions of microbes can fit inside the eye of a needle. They are also very old. In fact, they are the oldest form of life on Earth. They roamed the Earth — in their own microscopic way — hundreds of millions of years before the dinosaurs. They live everywhere. Dig up the soil, and you will find countless microbes living there. Take a sample of air, and they are there as well. They even live inside our digestive systems. The many species of microbes can be organized in several ways. Familiar categories include the bacteria, fungi, and viruses. There are even microscopic animals — such as dust mites — which resemble tiny insects. Microbes can also be split into two groups based upon whether they have a cell nucleus. This membrane-bound part of the cell encloses the genetic material. In addition, microbes can be classified by how they obtain and process their food. Or how they react to oxygen. Some microbes need oxygen to survive. Others — like the ones living inside our digestive system — are killed by oxygen.

 Importance of Microbes Microbes are essential components of every ecosystem. They produce the oxygen that we need to live. They break down garbage and dead organisms. They produce nutrients that plants need to grow. They even help us digest our food. In addition to these natural activities, microbes are needed for making foods like bread, wine and beer. Scientists also use microbes for practical applications. Microbes at a sewer treatment plant help breakdown the waste. Microbes can also be used to change the genetic composition of plants and animals. This gives them new traits, such as resistance to pesticides. Microbes are probably better known for the diseases that they cause. AIDS, tuberculosis, bacterial meningitis and the common cold are all caused by microbes. Greater understanding of how microbes live and function, though, has enabled scientists to prevent and treat diseases. Vaccines, antibiotics and other drugs are powerful tools for reducing illnesses caused by microbes. Not all discoveries, however, were planned. Penicillin, an antibiotic produced by a fungus, was discovered largely by accident. In spite of the many scientific discoveries, washing and proper sanitation are still important tools in preventing diseases caused by microbes. 

 Science of Microbiology The invention of the microscope in the late 1600’s sparked the science of microbiology — the study of microbes. Scientists that study microbes are called microbiologists. Early on, microbiology focused on observing the tiny organisms visible through the microscope lenses. Over time the techniques for collecting and growing microbes improved. Microbiologists then began to understand how microbes reproduce, develop and cause disease. While we now know that bacteria can cause diseases, scientists only started to prove this in the 19th century. Since its early beginnings, microbiology has expanded beyond just the microbes that affect human health. Microbiologists now study the entire range of microbes. The branches of microbiology can be defined by the organisms being studied. Microbiology can also be divided along more broad areas. These include areas such as evolution, genetics and applied fields, like industrial microbiology. 

 Microbiology Techniques Microbes are challenging organisms to study. You can’t see them with the naked eye, so microscopes are needed to observe them directly. The earliest observations of microbes were made with simple lenses. Microscopes were then built with a combination of lenses. This enabled scientists to see more details and smaller organisms. Other types of microscopes and techniques were later developed. These provided scientists with a greater understanding of the microscopic world. Observing microbes is only one of the challenges faced by microbiologists. Only a small fraction of microbes can actually be grown in a laboratory. This means that countless species of microbes have yet to be identified. Scientists can, however, study the microbes that are difficult to grow using other methods, such as DNA sequencing. Microbiologists are also able to alter the genetic material inside a microbe. This changes how the microbe behaves and functions.

Animal Products plays an important role in the socio- economic life of India. It is a rich source of high quality of animal products such as milk, meat and eggs. India has emerged as the largest producer of milk with 16.43 percent share in total milk production in the world. India accounts for about 4.95 percent of the global egg production and also the largest population of milch animals in the world, with 112.9 million buffaloes, 157 million goat and 74.5 million sheep. Exports of animal products represent an important and significant contribution to the Indian Agriculture sector. The export of Animal Products includes Buffalo meat, Sheep/ Goat meat, Poultry products, Animal Casings, Milk and Milk products and Honey etc. 

Butter Fresh	Butter MilK
Butter Oil	Fresh Cheese
Milk & Cream in Powder	Milk for Babies
Other Fat	Skimmed milk powder
Other milk power	Whole Milk
Ghee

Curd is a sour milk preparation. Curd or dahi or yoghurt is eaten as such with salt or sugar or added to other preparations. The butterfat is removed from dahi by churning and used to make ghee. Curd has almost the same calorific value of cow's milk. 40 percent of lactose is converted to lactic acid. It has 3.1gm of protein, 4gm of fat, 149mg of calcium, and 93mg of phosphorous.

Curd is reported to have better nutritive value than milk. Though there is no increase in the fat or protein content of milk during fermentation, the digestibility of curd is more than that of milk. The calcium and phosphorous contents of curd are more easily assimilated. Curd contains more vitamins than milk. During curd formation the lactose of milk is converted into lactic acid. There is some breakdown of protein increasing the non-protein nitrogen. The fat globules coalesce and distribute them selves on the top. Physically during curd formation milk proteins are jellied and a thin exudates of clear serum on the curd is seen.

The organism involved in curd formation belongs to the group of lacto bacillus and streptococci. Each of these organisms produces different levels of acidity. The formation of consistently good quality curd depends upon the use of the right type of starter. A starter culture containing a combination of lactobacillus and lactococcus organisms gives good results. Starters containing yeasts, molds and gas forming organisms spoil the quality of curd. When they are present, a product with a homogeneous texture or good aroma will not be obtained. There will be cracks and gas bubbles and the curd will be of poor quality and taste.

 cheeses  There are lots of different types of cheese and no standard way of classifying them. Some cheeses also fall into more than one category. They can be classified by age, country of origin, fat content, dairy content, manufacturing methods, texture and special characteristics. Steven Jenkins, a renowned American cheese expert and member of the Confrérie des chevaliers du Taste Fromage (an elite society of cheese connoisseurs), suggests the following categories [source: Jenkins]:

• Fresh
• Soft-ripened
• Washed-rind
• Natural-rind
• Blue-veined
• Uncooked, pressed
• Cooked, pressed
• Processed

Fresh cheeses are the most basic. They're uncooked, unaged and sometimes still contain whey (the liquid part of milk). They don't keep very long and therefore need to be eaten soon after they're made. This cheese category includes mozzarella, cottage cheese, ricotta, cream cheese, farmer cheese, mascarpone and queso fresco. Fresh cheese is characterized by its soft, creamy texture and mild taste.

Fresh cheeses are the most basic. They're uncooked, unaged and sometimes still contain whey (the liquid part of milk). They don't keep very long and therefore need to be eaten soon after they're made. This cheese category includes mozzarella, cottage cheese, ricotta, cream cheese, farmer cheese, mascarpone and queso fresco. Fresh cheese is characterized by its soft, creamy texture and mild taste.

Soft-ripened cheeses are semisoft in texture and sometimes have a white, or "bloomy," rind. This is created with the application of molds (more on this later). Soft-ripened cheeses are usually a little more flavorful and buttery than fresh cheeses, but they're still very mild. Camembert and Brie are examples of this type of cheese.

Most varieties of "stinky" cheese, like Limburger, are washed-rind, or monastery cheese. These cheeses have reddish-orange rinds. The "stink" comes from being washed in a liquid, such as salted water, wine or beer, during the ripening phase. The washing encourages the growth of bacteria and mold, which gives the cheese a very strong smell and taste.

Some cheeses have rinds that form naturally, without the introduction of molds or bacteria. These natural-rind cheeses are usually aged and are heavier than other types of cheeses. Many of them are made from raw milk, and they include English Stilton and the French fromage de chèvre.

English Stilton is a blue-veined cheese. These cheeses resemble marble, with bluish-green veins crossing through the pale cheese. The veins are mold cultures, introduced during the cheesemaking process. Depending on the type of cheese, the mold may give it a very strong flavor. Maytag Blue, Gorgonzola and Roquefort are other examples of blue-veined cheese.

Cheddar, one of the most well-known cheeses, is an uncooked, pressedcheese. This means that the curds have not been heated and the cheese has been pressed to give it a very compact, dense texture. Cooked, pressed cheese has its curds heated before being pressed. Parmigiano-Reggiano, Gruyère and Emmental are all cooked, pressed cheeses. Within this category are pasta filata, cheeses like provolone in which the curds are stretched.

Processed cheese isn't technically a cheese but a byproduct of the cheesemaking process. It may be made with scraps of cheese, but processed cheese can also include whey, cream, water, dyes, gums and other ingredients. It has a long shelf life, melts easily and can be made in spreadable varieties. This type of cheese includes American cheese (although this name is also used for some American-made cheddars) as well as products like Cheez Whiz, Velveeta and spray cheese. However, not all processed cheese is American-made -- the French La Vache Qui Rit (Laughing Cow) is also processed.

Cheese (with the exception of processed cheese) can be made with milk from mammals other than cows. Roquefort, a blue-veined cheese, and Pecorino Romano, a cooked, pressed cheese, are both made with sheep's milk. Many varieties of cheese, including soft-ripened and blue-veined, can be made with goat's milk.

Regardless of the source, milk is the main component in cheesemaking. In the next section, we'll look at how all of these cheeses are made.

Angiosperms

Angiosperms The flowering plants (also called angiosperms) are the dominant and most familiar group of land plants. The flowering plants and the gymnosperms comprise the two groups of seed plants. The flowering plants are distinguished from other seed plants by a series of apomorphies, or derived characteristics. Angiosperm derived characteristics • Flowers The flowers of flowering plants are the most remarkable feature distinguishing them from other seed plants. Flowers aided angiosperms by enabling a wider range of evolutionary relationship and broadening the ecological niches open to them, allowing flowering plants to eventually dominate terrestrial ecosystems. • Stamens with two pairs of pollen sacs Stamens are much lighter than the corresponding organs of gymnosperms and have contributed to the diversification of angiosperms through time with adaptations to specialized pollination syndromes, such as particular pollinators. Stamens have also been modified through time to prevent self-fertilization, again to increase diversity, allowing angiosperms to eventually fill more niches. •Reduced male parts, three cells The reduced male gametophyte in angiosperms may have evolved to decrease the amount of time from pollination, the pollen grain reaching the female plant, to the fertilization of the ovary. In gymnosperms fertilization can occur up to a year after pollination, while in flowering plants the fertilization process begins very soon after pollination, allowing angiosperms, ultimately, to set seeds sooner and faster than gymnosperms. •Closed carpel enclosing the ovules (carpel or carpels and accessory parts may become the fruit) The closed carpel of angiosperms also allows adaptations to specialized pollination syndromes and controls to prevent self-fertilization, thereby maintaining increased diversity. Once the ovary is fertilized the carpel and some surrounding tissues develop into a fruit, another opportunity for angiosperms to increase their domination of the terrestrial ecosystem with evolutionary adaptations to dispersal mechanisms. •Reduced female gametophyte, seven cells with eight nuclei The reduced female gametophyte, like the reduce male gametophyte may be evolutionary adaptations allowing for more rapid seed set, eventually leading to such flowering plant adaptations as annual herbaceous life cycles, allowing the flowering plants to fill even more niches. • Endosperm Endosperm formation generally begins after fertilization and before the first division of the zygote. Endosperm is a highly nutritive tissue that can provide food for the developing embryo, the cotyledons, and sometimes for the seedling when it first appears. These distinguishing characteristics taken together have made the angiosperms the most diverse and numerous land plants and the most commercially important group to humans. The major exception to the dominance of terrestrial ecosystems by flowering plants is the coniferous forest. Evolution Pink Hyacinth tree in flower, at sunset Pink Hyacinth tree in flower, at sunset While land plants have existed for about 425 million years, the first ones reproduced by a simple adaptation of their aquatic counterparts: spores. In the sea, plants -- and some animals -- can simply scatter out little living copies of themselves to float away and grow elsewhere. This is how early plants, such as the modern fern, are thought to have reproduced. But plants soon began protecting these copies to deal with drying out and other abuse which is even more likely on land than in the sea. The protection became the seed, but not, yet, flowers. Early seed-bearing plants include the ginkgo, conifers (like pines), and fir trees. The earliest fossil of an angiosperm, a flowering plant, Archaefructus liaoningensis, is dated about 125 million years old[1]. Pollen, considered directly linked to flower development has been found in the fossil record dating back to perhaps 130 million years ago. The apparently sudden appearance of relatively modern flowers in the fossil record posed such a problem for the theory of evolution that it was called an "abominable mystery" by Charles Darwin. Recently discovered angiosperm fossils such as Archaefructus, along with further discoveries of fossil gymnosperms, suggest how angiosperm characteristics may have been acquired in a series of steps. Several groups of extinct gymnosperms, particularly seed ferns, have been proposed as the ancestors of flowering plants but there is no continuous fossil evidence showing exactly how flowers evolved. Some older fossils, such as the upper Triassic Sanmiguelia, have been suggested. Based on current evidence, some propose that the ancestors of the angiosperms diverged from an unknown group of gymnosperms during the late Triassic (245-202 million years ago). The relationship of the earlier gigantopterids to flowering plants is still enigmatic. A close relationship between angiosperms and Gnetophytes, suggested on the basis of morphological evidence, has been disputed on the basis of molecular evidence that suggest Gnetophytes are more closely related to other gymnosperms. Recent DNA analysis (molecular systematics) [2] [3] show that Amborella trichopoda, found on the Pacific island of New Caledonia, is the sister group to the rest of the flowering plants, and morphological studies [4] suggest that it has features which may have been characteristic of the earliest flowering plants. The great angiosperm radiation, when a great diversity of angiosperms appear in the fossil record, occurred in the mid-Cretaceous (approximately 100 million years ago). By the late Cretaceous, angiosperms appear to have become the predominant group of land plants, and many fossil plants recognizable as belonging to modern families (including beech, oak, maple, and magnolia) appeared. Various flower colors and shapes Various flower colors and shapes A Syrphid fly on a Grape hyacinth A Syrphid fly on a Grape hyacinth The general assumption is that the function of flowers, from the start, was to involve other animals in the reproduction process. Pollen can be scattered without bright colors and obvious shapes, which would therefore be a liability, using the plant's resources, unless they provide some other benefit. One proposed reason for the sudden, fully developed appearance of flowers is that they evolved in an isolated setting like an island, or chain of islands, where the plants bearing them were able to develop a highly specialized relationship with some specific animal (a wasp, for example), the way many island species develop today. This symbiotic relationship, with a hypothetical wasp bearing pollen from one plant to another much the way fig wasps do today, could have eventually resulted in both the plant(s) and their partners developing a high degree of specialization. Island genetics is believed to be a common source of speciation, especially when it comes to radical adaptations which seem to have required inferior transitional forms. Note that the wasp example is not incidental; bees, apparently evolved specifically for symbiotic plant relationships, are descended from wasps. Likewise, most fruit used in plant reproduction comes from the enlargement of parts of the flower. This fruit is frequently a tool which depends upon animals wishing to eat it, and thus scattering the seeds it contains. While many such symbiotic relationships remain too fragile to survive competition with mainland animals and spread, flowers proved to be an unusually effective means of production, spreading (whatever their actual origin) to become the dominant form of land plant life. While there is only hard proof of such flowers existing about 130 million years ago, there is some circumstantial evidence that they did exist up to 250 million years ago. A chemical used by plants to defend their flowers, oleanane, has been detected in fossil plants that old, including gigantopterids[5], which evolved at that time and bear many of the traits of modern, flowering plants, though they are not known to be flowering plants themselves, because only their stems and prickles have been found preserved in detail; one of the earliest examples of petrification. The similarity in leaf and stem structure can be very important, because flowers are genetically just an adaptation of normal leaf and stem components on plants, a combination of genes normally responsible for forming new shoots[6]. The most primitive flowers are thought to have had a variable number of flower parts, often separate from (but in contact with) each other. The flowers would have tended to grow in a spiral pattern, to be bisexual (in plants, this means both male and female parts on the same flower), and to be dominated by the ovary (female part). As flowers grew more advanced, some variations developed parts fused together, with a much more specific number and design, and with either specific sexes per flower or plant, or at least "ovary inferior". Flower evolution continues to the present day; modern flowers have been so profoundly influenced by humans that some of them cannot be pollinated in nature. Many modern, domesticated flowers used to be simple weeds, which only sprouted when the ground was disturbed. Some of them tended to grow with human crops, perhaps already having symbiotic companion plant relationships with them, and the prettiest did not get plucked because of their beauty, developing a dependence upon and special adaptation to human affection[7]. Classification A monocot (left), and dicot A monocot (left), and dicot The botanical term "Angiosperm", from the ancient Greek αγγειον (receptacle) and σπερμα (seed), was coined in the form Angiospermae by Paul Hermann in 1690, as the name of that one of his primary divisions of the plant kingdom, which included flowering plants possessing seeds enclosed in capsules, in contradistinction to his Gymnospermae, or flowering plants with achenial or schizo-carpic fruits, the whole fruit or each of its pieces being here regarded as a seed and naked. The term and its antonym were maintained by Carolus Linnaeus with the same sense, but with restricted application, in the names of the orders of his class Didynamia. Its use with any approach to its modern scope only became possible after Robert Brown had established in 1827 the existence of truly naked ovules in the Cycadeae and Coniferae, entitling them to be correctly called Gymnosperms. From that time onwards, so long as these Gymnosperms were, as was usual, reckoned as dicotyledonous flowering plants, the term Angiosperm was used antithetically by botanical writers, but with varying limitation, as a group-name for other dicotyledonous plants. The advent in 1851 of Hofmeister's discovery of the changes proceeding in the embryo-sac of flowering plants, and his determination of the correct relationships of these with the Cryptogamia, fixed the position of Gymnosperms as a class distinct from Dicotyledons, and the term Angiosperm then gradually came to be accepted as the suitable designation for the whole of the flowering plants other than Gymnosperms, and as including therefore the classes of Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons. This is the sense in which the term is nowadays received and in which it is used here. In most taxonomic treatments the flowering plants are treated as a coherent group. Usually this takes the form of a taxonomic grouping, or taxon, which will be assigned a rank. For taxa at a rank above the rank of family Art 16 of the ICBN allows either a descriptive name or a name formed from the name of an included family (that in turn is based on a generic name). The most popular descriptive name has been Angiospermae (Angiosperms), with Anthophyta ("flowering plants") a second choice. These names are not linked to any rank. The Wettstein system and the Engler system use the name Angiospermae, at the assigned rank of subdivision. A name formed from an included family depends on the rank chosen, with different endings for different ranks. The Reveal system treated it as subdivision Magnoliophytina (Frohne & U. Jensen ex Reveal, Phytologia 79: 70 1996), but later split it to Magnoliopsida, Liliopsida and Rosopsida. The Takhtajan system and Cronquist system treat this group at the rank of division, leading to the name Magnoliophyta (from the family name Magnoliaceae). The Dahlgren system and Thorne system (1992) treat this group at the rank of class, leading to the name Magnoliopsida. However, the APG system, of 1998, and the APG II system, of 2003, do not treat it as a formal taxon but rather treat it as a clade without a formal botanical name and use the name angiosperms for this clade. Internal classification The internal classification of this group has undergone considerable revision as ideas change about the relationships of the plants that form this group. The Cronquist system, proposed by Arthur Cronquist in 1968 and published in its full form in 1981, is still widely used but is no longer believed to reflect phylogeny. A general consensus about how the flowering plants should be arranged has recently begun to emerge, through the work of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, who published an influential reclassification of the angiosperms in 1998. An update incorporating more recent research was published as APG II in 2003. Traditionally, the flowering plants are divided into two groups, which in the Cronquist system are called Magnoliopsida (at the rank of class, formed from the family name Magnoliacae) and Liliopsida (at the rank of class, formed from the family name Liliaceae). Other descriptive names allowed by Art 16 of the ICBN include Dicotyledones or Dicotyledoneae, and Monocotyledones or Monocotyledoneae, which have a long history of use. In English a member of either group may be called a dicotyledon (plural dicotyledons) and monocotyledon (plural monocotyledons), or abbreviated, as dicot (plural dicots) and monocot (plural monocots). These names derive from the observation that the dicots most often have two cotyledons, or embryonic leaves, within each seed. The monocots usually have only one, but the rule is not absolute either way. From a diagnostic point of view the number of cotyledons is neither a particularly handy nor reliable character. Recent studies, as by the APG group, show that the monocots are a "good" group (a holophyletic or monophyletic group); this clade is given the name monocots. However, the dicots are not (they are a paraphyletic group). Nevertheless, within the dicots a "good" group does exist, which includes most of the dicots. This clade is called the eudicots or tricolpates. The name tricolpates derives from a type of pollen found widely within this group. The name eudicots is formed by preceding dicot by the botanical prefix eu- (from Greek, where "eu-" means either "true" or "good"), as the eudicots share the characters traditionally attributed to the dicots, such as flowers with four or five parts (four or five petals, four or five sepals). Separating this group of eudicots from the rest of the (former) dicots leaves a remainder, which sometimes are called informally palaeodicots (Greek prefix "palaeo-" means "old"). As this remnant group is not monophyletic this is a term of convenience only. Flowering plant diversity The number of species of flowering plants is estimated to be in the range of 250,000 to 400,000. The number of families in APG (1998) was 462. In APG II (2003) it is not settled; at maximum it is 457, but within this number there are 55 optional segregates, so that the minimum number of families in this system is 402. The most diverse families of flowering plants, in order of number of species, are: 1. Orchidaceae (orchid family): 25,000 or more species 2. Asteraceae or Compositae (daisy family): 20,000 species 3. Fabaceae or Leguminosae (pea family): 17,000 4. Rubiaceae (madder family): 13,183 5. Poaceae or Gramineae (grass family): 9,000 6. Euphorbiaceae (spurge family): 5,000 7. Malvaceae (mallow family): 4,300 8. Cyperaceae (sedge family): 4,000 9. Araceae (aroid family): 3700 In the list above (showing only the 9 largest families), the Orchidaceae, Poaceae, Cyperaceae and Araceae are monocot families; the others are dicot families. Plant anatomy The amount and complexity of tissue-formation in flowering plants far exceeds that found in Gymnosperms. The vascular bundles of the stem are arranged such that the xylem and phloem stand side by side on the same radius. In the Dicotyledons, the bundles in the very young stem are arranged in an open ring, separating a central pith from an outer cortex. In each bundle, separating the xylem and phloem, is a layer of meristem or active formative tissue, known as cambium; by the formation of a layer of cambium between the bundles (interfascicular cambium) a complete ring is formed, and a regular periodical increase in thickness results from it by the development of xylem on the inside and phloem on the outside. The soft phloem soon becomes crushed, but the hard wood persists, and forms the great bulk of the stem and branches of the woody perennial. Owing to differences in the character of the elements produced at the beginning and end of the season, the wood is marked out in transverse section into concentric rings, one for each season of growth, called annual rings. In the smaller group, the Monocotyledons, the bundles are more numerous in the young stem and scattered through the ground tissue. Moreover they contain no cambium and the stem once formed increases in diameter only in exceptional cases. The flower, fruit, and seed Flowers Main articles: Flower and Plant sexuality The characteristic feature of angiosperms is the flower, which shows remarkable variation in form and elaboration, and provides the most trustworthy external characteristics for establishing relationships among angiosperm species. The function of the flower is that of ensuring fertilization of the ovule and development of fruit containing seeds. The floral apparatus may arise terminally on a shoot or from the axil of a leaf. Occasionally, as in violet, a flower arises singly in the axil of an ordinary foliage-leaf. However, more typically, the flower-bearing portion of the plant is sharply distinguished from the foliage-bearing or vegetative portion, and forms a more or less elaborate branch-system called an inflorescence. The reproductive cells produced by flowers are of two kinds, microspores which will divide to become pollen grains, are the "male" cells and are borne in the stamens (or microsporophylls), and the "female" cells called megaspores, which will divide to become the egg-cell (in a process called megagametogenesis), contained in the ovule and enclosed in the carpel (or megasporophyll). The flower may consist only of these parts, as in willow, where each flower comprises only a few stamens or two carpels. Usually, however, other structures are present and serve both to protect the sporophylls and to form an envelope attractive to pollinating insects. The individual members of these surrounding structures are called sepals and petals (or tepals in flowers such as Magnolia where sepals and petals are not distinguishable from each other). The outer series (calyx of sepals) is usually green and leaf-like, and functions to protect the rest of the flower, especially in the bud. The inner series (corolla of petals) is generally white or brightly coloured, and more delicate in structure, and functions in attracting a particular insect or bird by agency of which pollination is effected. This attraction involves colour and scent, and frequently also nectar which is secreted in some part of the flower. These characteristics that attract pollinators account for the popularity of flowers and flowering plants among humans. While the majority of flowers are perfect or hermaphrodite (having both male and female parts in the same flower structure), flowering plants have developed numerous morphological and physiological mechanisms to reduce or prevent self-fertilization. Heteromorphic flowers have short carpels and long stamens, or vice versa, so animal pollinators cannot easily transfer pollen to the pistil (receptive part of the carpel). Homomorphic flowers may employ a biochemical (physiological) mechanism called self-incompatibility to discriminate between self- and non-self pollen grains. In other species, the male and female parts are morphologically separated, developing on different flowers. Fertilization and embryogenesis Main articles: Fertilization and Plant embryogenesis Double fertilization refers to a process in flowering plants during reproduction, in which two sperm cells fertilize two cells in the ovary. The pollen grain adheres to the stigma of the carpel (female reproductive structure) and grows a pollen tube that penetrates the ovum through a tiny pore called a micropyle. Two sperm cells are released into the ovary through this tube. One of the two sperm cells fertilizes the egg cell, forming a diploid zygote or embryo, also called the ovule. The other sperm cell fuses with two haploid polar nuclei in the center of the embryo sac. The resulting cell is triploid (3n). This triploid cell divides through mitosis and forms the endosperm, a nutrient-rich tissue inside the fruit. When seed develops without fertilization, the process is known as apomixis. Fruit and seed Main articles: Seed and Fruit As the development of embryo and endosperm proceeds within the embryo-sac, its wall enlarges and commonly absorbs the substance of the nucellus (which is likewise enlarging) to near its outer limit, and combines with it and the integument to form the seed-coat; or the whole nucellus and even the integument may be absorbed. The ovary wall has developed to form the fruit or pericarp, the structure of which is closely associated with the manner of distribution of the seed. Frequently the influence of fertilization is felt beyond the ovary, and other parts of the flower take part in the formation of the fruit, as the floral receptacle in the apple, strawberry and others. The character of the seed-coat bears a definite relation to that of the fruit. Their function is the twofold one of protecting the embryo and of aiding in dissemination; they may also directly promote germination. If the fruit is a dehiscent one and the seed is therefore soon exposed, the seed-coat has to provide for the protection of the embryo and may also have to secure dissemination. On the other hand, indehiscent fruits discharge these functions for the embryo, and the seed-coat is only slightly developed. Economic importance Agriculture is almost entirely dependent on angiosperms, either directly or indirectly through livestock feed. Of all the families of flowering plants, the Poaceae, or grass family, is by far the most important, providing the bulk of all feedstocks (rice, corn (maize), wheat, barley, rye, oats, pearl millet, sugar cane, sorghum), with the Fabaceae, or legume family, in second place. Also of high importance are the Solanaceae, or nightshade family (potatoes, tomatoes, and peppers, among others), the Cucurbitaceae, or gourd family (also including pumpkins and melons), the Brassicaceae, or mustard plant family (including rapeseed and cabbage), and the Apiaceae, or parsley family. Many of our fruits come from the Rutaceae, or rue family, and the Rosaceae (rose family, including apples, pears, cherries, apricots, plums, etc). In some parts of the world, certain single species assume paramount importance because of their variety of uses. An example is the coconut (Cocos nucifera) on Pacific atolls. Another example is the olive (Olea europaea) in the Mediterranean. Flowering plants also provide economic resources in the form of wood, paper, fiber (cotton, flax, and hemp, among others), medicines (digitalis, camphor), decorative and landscaping plants, and many, many other uses. Angiosperms The angiosperms, or flowering plants, are the largest and most species-rich phylum of plants, with more than 250,000 species estimated. Defining Characteristics The term "angiosperm" derives from two Greek words: angeion, meaning "vessel," and sperma, meaning "seed." The angiosperms are those plants whose seeds develop within a surrounding layer of plant tissue, called the carpel, with seeds attached around the margins. This arrangement is easily seen by slicing into a tomato, for example. Collectively, carpels together with the style and stigma are termed the ovary, and these plus associated structures develop into the mature fruit. The enclosed seeds and the presence of carpels distinguish angiosperms from their closest living relatives, the gymnosperms , in which the seed is not enclosed within a fruit, but rather sits exposed to the environment. Some defining characteristics of angiosperms include flowers, carpels, and the presence of endosperm, a nutritive substance found in seeds, produced via a second fertilization event. However, some current studies suggest that endosperm is not unique to angiosperms. Angiosperm flowers are generically characterized by having four whorls, or sets of organs: sepals , petals, stamens, and carpels. The carpels may be united or fused to form a compound pistil , and the number of stigma lobes may then be indicative of the number of carpels. The pistil also includes the stigma, on which pollen lands, and style, the tube leading to the egg. Stamens are separated into anthers, which produce pollen, and filaments. The mature ovary (part of the pistil containing the seeds) is termed a "fruit." Sepals and petals may be showy and colorful to attract pollinators, or may be quite reduced in wind-pollinated plants, such as grasses. Likewise, fruits may assume a wide variety of forms associated with mode of dispersal, such as fleshy fruits (for example, berries) dispersed by animals, and dry, winged fruits adapted for wind dispersal, such as the samaras of maple trees, which twirl like helicopters as they fall. Evolution and the Angiosperms The angiosperms are a relatively recent group of land plants, and are thought to have originated in the early Cretaceous, only 130 million years ago. The angiosperms increased dramatically in abundance during the Cretaceous. This sudden, dramatic appearance of large numbers of very diverse flowering plant species in the fossil record was referred to by English naturalist Charles Darwin as an "abominable mystery." It is postulated that coevolution with animal pollinators, especially insects, may have contributed to the explosion and abundance of angiosperm species which characterize the modern earth's flora. However, even today, it is not clear what group of nonflowering plants the angiosperms are most closely related to, or what the relationships of the early lineages of flowering plants are to one another. This is in part due to the extremely fast evolution of this group of plants, over a relatively short period of time, and the extinction of many closely related lineages of seed plants, some of which may be more closely related to the modern angiosperms than extant seed plant lineages. Most contemporary studies, which are based on phylogenetic analysis of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) sequence data from as many as six different genes, suggest that the closest relatives of the angiosperms are the gymnosperms, which include cycads, Ginkgo, conifers (the group that contains the pines, spruces, firs, and relatives), and Gnetales (a group containing three ancient genera: Ephedra, the Mormon tea; Welwitschia, a bizarre plant of southwest African deserts; and Gnetum, a genus of mostly tropical vines). The origins of angiosperms are not well understood and remain problematic, in part because many seed plant lineages have already gone extinct. However, studies indicate that the earliest lineage of flowering plants, or basal angiosperms, may include the family Amborellaceae (with the single living species Amborella trichopoda, a shrub from the South Pacific island of New Caledonia). Other early diverging lineages of angiosperms include Nympheales, the water lilies; Illiciales, or star anise; a group called the magnoliids, which includes magnolias, laurels, and black pepper; and the very large group called the monocots . A final lineage, the eudicots , contains all other flowering plants and comprises the bulk (approximately three-quarters) of the flowering plant species. Monocots, Dicots, and Eudicots The angiosperms have historically been divided into two groups: the monocotyledons (monocots) and the dicotyledons (dicots). These terms derive from the number of seed leaves, or cotyledons , the plants have upon germination. Dicots have recently been shown not to be an evolutionarily natural group. The monocots do form an evolutionarily natural, or monophyletic , group, and include familiar plants such as lilies, grasses, and palm trees. The monocots are characterized by having a single cotyledon, an adventitious root system, stems with scattered vascular bundles, absence of woody growth, leaves with parallel venation, flower parts usually in sets of threes, and monoaperturate pollen (that is, pollen with one large, groovelike aperture). The dicots have historically included all those plants with two cotyledons, tap root systems, stems with vascular bundles in a ring, leaf venation forming a netlike pattern, and flower parts in fours or fives. Current studies indicate that the dicots do not form an evolutionarily monophyletic group, but instead include several different lineages, some of which are more closely related to the monocots. Two groups that are well supported in contemporary studies are the eudicots ("true dicots"), characterized by having triaperturate pollen (that is, pollen with three long, groovelike apertures), and the noneudicots, which are characterized by having inaperturate pollen; that is, pollen lacking apertures. Noneudicot, basal angiosperms include the monocots, the laurels and avocados, the magnolias, black pepper, Amborella, water lilies and Illiciaceae (the star anise family). Evolutionary relationships among these noneudicot groups are not well understood. The eudicots include many familiar plants, including most trees, and include two major groups of flowering plants, the asterids (including the composite family, and the economically important Solanaceae, the potato family) and the rosids (including the rose family and the economically important legume family). Diversity and Symbioses Some of the most species-rich families of flowering plants include the monocot species of Orchidaceae, the orchids (19,500 species), the Poaceae or grass family (8,700), the Cyperaceae or sedge family (4,500), and the eudicot families of Euphorbiaceae or spurge family (6,900), the Fabaceae or legume family (18,000), the Rosaceae or rose family (3,000), Brassicaceae or mustard family (4,130), Rubiaceae or coffee family (9,000), the Lamiaceae or mint family (6,970), the Apiaceae or carrot family (4,250), and the Asteraceae or composite family (23,000). The angiosperms are of great ecological importance and are principal components of nearly all of the major land habitats. Correspondingly, flowering plants are quite diverse in morphology , growth form, and habitat, and range from the minute aquatic plants in the duckweed family (genus Lemna ) to the massive forest trees, such as oak and maple. Angiosperm flowers can be quite reduced, as in the grasses, where the most visible floral parts are the stamens and stigmas, to quite elaborate floral structures exhibiting fusion of parts and development of complex shapes, such as those evolved to attract insect pollinators in the orchids, mints, and snapdragons. An important aspect of angiosperm evolution is their well-documented relationships with other organisms such as animal pollinators, mycorrhizal (fungal) root associations, and even bacteria. Indeed, one of the most successful families of flowering plants, in terms of number of species, are the orchids, which have very specialized relationships with both pollinators and mycorrhizal interactions. Another highly successful family, the legume family, has evolved symbiotic relationships with nitrogen-fixing bacterial symbionts . Some flowering plants, such as the acacias of the legume family, obtain protection from herbivores via symbiotic relationships with ants. Through agriculture, humans have developed their own complex relationship with angiosperms. It is these relationships with other organisms that is the hallmark of angiosperms, and as such have contributed to the success of the flowering plants in the modern earth's flora. Angiosperms The angiosperms, or flowering plants (division Anthophyta or Magnoliophyta), comprise more than 230,000 species and are thus by far the largest division of plants; they represent the dominant group of land plants today. In both vegetative and floral morphology the angiosperms are highly diverse. In size, for example, they range from the duckweeds (the genus Lemna ), which are roughly one millimeter in length, to Eucalyptus trees, which are well over one hundred meters. Although all are characterized by the possession of flowers, these structures are also highly diverse in form and size. The smallest flowers are less than a millimeter in size (the flowers of duckweeds) while the largest flowers are approximately one meter in diameter (the flowers of Rafflesia ). Features unique, or nearly so, to angiosperms include the flower; the presence of seeds within a closed structure (actually a modified leaf) referred to as the carpel ; the reduction of the female gametophyte to eight nuclei and seven cells; double fertilization (the MAJOR ANGIOSPERM GROUPS Major Clades and Representative Families Common Name Number of Species in Family (approximate) Eurosid Rosaceae Rose family 3,500 Fabaceae Pea or legume family 17,000 Brassicaceae Mustard family 3,000 Fagaceae Beech or oak family 1,000 Cucurbitaceae Pumpkin or gourd family 700 Euphorbiaceae Spurge family 5,000 Juglandaceae Walnut or hickory family 50 Begoniacae Begonia family 1,000 Geraniaceae Geranium family 750 Malvaceae Cotton family 1,000 Euasterid Cornaceae Dogwood family 100 Ericaceae Heath family 3,000 Lamiaceae Mint family 3,000 Solanaceae Tomato or potato family 2,500 Asteraceae Sunflower family 25,000 Apiaceae Parsley family 3,000 Hydrangeaceae Hydrangea family 170 Caryophyllales Cactaceae Cactus family 2,000 Caryophyllaceae Carnation or pink family 2,000 Aizoaceae Mesembryanthemum family 2,300 Portulacaceae Portulaca family 500 Polygonaceae Buckwheat or rhubarb family 750 Magnoliids* Magnoliaceae Magnolia family 200 Lauraceae Avocado or cinnamon family 2,500 Piperaceae Pepper family 3,000 Myristicaceae Nutmeg family 380 Annonaceae Sweetsop family 2,000 Monocots* Orchidaceae Orchid family 18,000 Poaceae Grass family 9,000 Arecaceae Palm family 2,800 Araceae Arum family 2,000 * Indicates major clades that are noneudicots; other major clades are eudicots. fusion of egg and sperm resulting in a zygote and the simultaneous fusion of the second sperm with the two polar nuclei, resulting in a triploid nucleus) and subsequent endosperm formation; a male or microgametophyte composed of three nuclei; stamens with two pairs of pollen sacs; and sieve tube elements and companion cells in the phloem. Nearly all angiosperms also possess vessel elements in the xylem, but vessel elements also occur in Gnetales and some ferns. Origins of Angiosperms Because of the sudden appearance of a diverse array of early angiosperms in the fossil record, Charles Darwin referred to the origin of the flowering plants as "an abominable mystery." Although there are reports of earlier angiosperm remains, the oldest fossils that are indisputably angiosperms are from the early Cretaceous period, about 130 million years ago. Based on fossil evidence, it is clear that angiosperms radiated rapidly after their origin, with great diversity already apparent 115 million years ago. By 90 to 100 million years ago the angiosperms had already become the dominant floristic element on Earth. By 75 million years ago, many modern orders and families were present. The closest relatives and ancestor of the flowering plants have long been topics of great interest and debate. There was widespread belief during the last decades of the twentieth century that the Gnetales, a group of gymnosperms having three existing, highly divergent members (Gnetum, Ephedra, Welwitschia ), were the closest living relatives of the flowering plants among existing gymnosperms. These three genera resemble angiosperms in having special water-conducting vessels in the wood and reproductive structures organized into compound strobili similar in organization to compound flower clusters. In addition, some Gnetales (the genus Gnetum ) have angiosperm-like leaves. Gnetales also have a process that, in part, resembles double fertilization, a feature unique to angiosperms. In Gnetales, both sperm produced by the male gametophyte (in the pollen) fuse with nuclei in the female gametophyte. However, in Gnetales the second fusion produces an additional embryo and does not result in the triploid endosperm characteristic of flowering plants. Beginning in the mid-1980s, however, phylogenetic trees derived from gene sequence data have indicated instead a close relationship of Gnetales to conifers, with all of the living gymnosperms forming a clade that is the sister group to the angiosperms. The molecular evidence is compelling and indicates that Gnetales are probably not the closest living relatives of the flowering plants. Several fossil lineages have been suggested as close relatives of the angiosperms. These include Pentoxylon and Bennettitales, and these plants must be considered as possible candidates for the closest relatives of the flowering plants. Taxonomy Traditionally, angiosperms have been divided into two major groups or classes: dicotyledons (Magnoliopsida) and monocotyledons (Liliopsida). In recent classification schemes, each class was then divided into a number of subclasses. In this scheme, dicots were divided into six subclasses: Magnoliidae, Hamamelidae, Caryophyllidae, Rosidae, Dilleniidae, and Asteridae. The monocots were similarly divided into subclasses: Alismatidae, Arecidae, Commelinidae, Zingiberidae, and Liliidae. Although the division of angiosperms into monocots and dicots, with subsequent division into subclasses, has long been followed in classifications and textbooks, phylogenetic studies have dramatically revised views of angiosperm relationships. In fact, trees derived from deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) sequence data have stimulated the most dramatic changes in views of angiosperm relationships during the past 150 years. As reviewed next, DNA data indicate that many of these groups do not hold together (that is, they do not form distinct clades—they are not monophyletic); hence they should not be recognized. Until recently, the radiation of the angiosperms was thought to have occurred so rapidly that many scientists believed that it might not be possible to identify the earliest angiosperms (this is also known as Darwin's "abominable mystery"). However, a series of recent molecular systematic (DNA) studies using different genes and molecular approaches all identify the very same first branches of the angiosperm tree of life. The evidence from these studies indicates that the angiosperms, formerly grouped as dicots and monocots, are best classified as either eudicots (true dicots) or noneudicots. The noneudicots are further divided into the monocots and the basal angiosperms. This scheme reflects what is now known about angiosperm evolution: The basal angiosperms are those plants thought to have evolved first and are ancestral to both monocots and eudicots. This group is represented by the Magnoliaceae (Magnolia family), Lauraceae (Laurel family), Nymphaeaceae (water lily family), Amborella (a shrub endemic to New Caledonia), and a group of shrubs that include Illicium, Schisandra, Trimenia, and Austrobaileya. Many of these early diverging angiosperms possess pollen with a single groove, or aperture (line of weakness). The monocots, which also have pollen with a single aperture, are believed to have arisen as one line of this earliest group of plants, probably more than 120 million years ago. Eudicots have pollen with three apertures. The details of their origins from basal angiosperms is less clear, but they are believed to have split off perhaps 127 million years ago. The term dicot, therefore, refers to plants that include both the eudicots and the basal angiosperms. Since the basal angiosperms are ancestral to the monocots as well, dicot cannot be meaningfully contrasted to monocot, and is thus not considered to be a taxonomically useful label. Whereas monocot remains a useful term, dicot does not represent a natural group of flowering plants and should be abandoned. That there is no monocot-versus-dicot split in the angiosperms is not a total surprise—botanists have long theorized that the monocots were derived from an ancient group of dicots during the early diversification of the angiosperms, and recent phylogenetic analyses simply confirm this hypothesis. The early branching angiosperms (or noneudicots) comprise not only the monocots, but many of those families (fewer than twenty-five) traditionally placed in the subclass Magnoliidae. Many of these families of early branching flowering plants possess oil cells that produce highly volatile oils referred to as ethereal oils. These ethereal oils are the basis of the characteristic fragrance of these plants; these compounds are responsible for the characteristic aroma of many spices, including sassafras, cinnamon, laurel or bay leaves, nutmeg, star anise, and black pepper. The noneudicots are also highly diverse in floral morphology. Familiar families of noneudicot or early diverging angiosperms include woody families such as the magnolia family (Magnoliaceae), the laurel or cinnamon family (Lauraceae), the nutmeg family (Myristicaceae), and the sweetsop or custard-apple family (Annonaceae). Members of these families often have relatively large flowers with numerous parts that may be spirally arranged. Other early branching angiosperms include plants often referred to as paleoherbs. As the name implies, paleo-herbs are predominantly herbaceous and have small flowers with very few flower parts. The paleoherbs include the black pepper family (Piperaceae) and wild-ginger family (Aristolochiaceae). Once the noneudicots are excluded, the remaining dicots form a well-supported clade referred to as the eudicots. This group contains, by far, the vast majority of angiosperm species; approximately 75 percent of all angiosperms are eudicots. Eudicots include most familiar angiosperm families. Recent phylogenetic trees demonstrate that the eudicots comprise a number of well-supported lineages that differ from traditional circumscriptions . The earliest branches of eudicots are members of the order Ranunculales, which include the Ranunculaceae (buttercup family), Papaveraceae (poppy family), Proteaceae (protea family), and Platanaceae (sycamore family). Following these early branching taxa , most remaining eudicots form a large clade (referred to as the core eudicots), comprised of three main branches and several smaller ones. The main branches of core eudicots are: eurosids, or true rosids (made up of members of the traditional subclasses Rosidae, Dilleniidae, and Hamamelidae) the euasterids, or true asterids (containing members of the traditional subclasses Asteridae, Dilleniidae, and Rosidae) the Caryophyllales (the traditional subclass Caryophyllidae, plus some Dilleniidae). Importantly, there is no clade that corresponds to the traditionally recognized subclasses Dilleniidae and Hamamelidae. As noted, these subclasses have members scattered throughout the eudciots—hence, they are not natural, or monophyletic groups. Because of the enormous insights that DNA-based studies have provided into relationships within the angiosperms, the use of long-recognized subclass names and group delineations, such as Magnoliidae, Rosidae, Asteridae, Dilleniidae, has been abandoned in recent classification schemes. Evolution and Adapations Based on the earliest branches of the angiosperm tree reconstructed from DNA sequence data, as well as fossil evidence, early angiosperms were likely woody shrubs with a moderate-sized flower possessing a moderate number of spirally arranged flower parts. There was no differentiation between sepals and petals (that is, tepals were present). The stamens did not exhibit well-differentiated anther and filament regions (these are often referred to as laminar stamens). The carpels , the structures that enclose the seeds, were folded and sealed by a sticky secretion rather than being fused shut, as is the typical condition in later-flowering plants. In contrast, later angiosperms (the eudicots, for example) have well-differentiated sepals and petals and flower parts in distinct whorls . Their stamens are well-differentiated into anther and filament regions and the carpels are fused during development. By eighty to ninety million years ago the angiosperms were dominant floristic elements. Obvious reasons for their success include the evolution of more efficient means of pollination (the flower for the attraction of pollinators) and seed dispersal (via the mature carpel, or fruit). One important innovation was the evolution of the bisexual flower; that is, the presence of both carpels and stamens in one flower. In contrast, gymnosperms have separate male and female reproductive structures or cones. Bisexual structures may have an advantage over unisexual structures in that the pollinator can both deliver and pick up pollen at each visit to a flower. Other possible reasons for the success of flowering plants involve morphological, chemical, and anatomical attributes. These include the presence in angiosperms of more efficient means of water and carbohydrate (sugar) conduction via vessel elements and sieve tube elements/companion cells, respectively. These anatomical features may be viewed as adaptations for drought resistance. Vessel elements are found in only a few groups other than flowering plants, and the presence of the sieve tube/companion cell pair is unique to the flowering plants. The evolution of the deciduous habit was also important in the success of the flowering plants. This feature permitted woody plants to lose their leaves and to become inactive physiologically during periods of drought and cold. Other important evolutionary innovations in angiosperms that also may have contributed to their success include a more efficient source of nutrition for the developing embryo through the production of triploid endosperm (in other seed plants the haploid female gametophyte tissue nourishes the young embryo) and the protection of ovules and developing seeds inside a novel, closed structure, the carpel. Compared to other plants, the angiosperms also possess enormous biochemical diversity, which includes a diverse array of chemicals that presumably act in defense against herbivores and pathogens . The first seed-producing plants (various lineages of gymnosperms) were wind-pollinated. The angiosperms, in contrast, as well as some gymnosperms (cycads and Gnetales), typically employ a more efficient system—insects feeding on pollen or nectar transfer pollen from one plant to the next. The more attractive the flower of the plant is to the insect, the more frequently the flowers will be visited and the more seed produced. The first angiosperms likely were pollinated by beetles that foraged on pollen and in so doing moved pollen from one flower to the next. Plants with flowers that provided special sources of food for pollinators, such as nectar, had a selective advantage. In this general way angiosperms and insects coevolved, or diversified. The rise and diversification of the diverse array of flower visitors we see today, such as bees, moths, and butterflies, occurred in concert with the increasing diversification of flowers. Both pollinators and angiosperms were influenced by the diversification of the other.

Plants of Medicinal and Cosmetic Usages

Skin Care Ingredients For Creams And Lotions

1.Fennel Seeds / Fennel Roots (Pimpinella Anisum)

Useful parts: Fennel Seeds, Fennel Roots
Chemical Constituents
Anise contains a volatile oil, furabicicoumarins, flavonoids, fatty acids, pheylpropanoids, sterols and proteins. Antheole has an observed oestrogenic effect, and the seeds as a whole are mildly oestrongenic. The effect substantiate the herb's use as a stimulant of sexual drive and of breast-milk production.

Cosmetic Uses
Tiny amounts of the essential oil, produced from the seeds, are added to toothpaste, perfumes and mouthwashes, and are used to mask bitter medicines, but in large amounts Anise is highly toxic. Grounded seeds are added to a face pack. Seed oil is used in perfumes, toothpastes, soaps and mouthwashes. Aromatic Seed Use crushed in potpourri. Anise mixed with bay leaves provides an excellent bath additive prior to ritual. Using anise in potpourri around the house wards off evil, and anise in your sleeping pillow at night will chase away the nightmares. The essential oil is used in ritual baths prior to any divination attempts. It is believed that hanging an anise seed head on your bedpost will restore lost youth. The seeds are carminative (they move gas out of the intestinal tract). Used in tea or as lozenges, they soothe a hard cough.
The composition according to the invention is intended primarily as a product for topical cosmetic application to human skin, especially as an agent for conditioning, moisturizing and smoothening the skin, and preventing or reducing the appearance of lined, wrinkled or aged skin. Anise is used in cough mixtures, as it is expectorant and soothes spasms of irritant coughs and bronchial problems. It promotes estrogen production and is used to encourage breast milk, ease childbirth, and stimulate libido.


2.Aloe, Aloe Vera, Indian Aloe (Aloe Vera Burm, Aloe Perfoliata L)
Useful parts: Aloe Vera Leaf, Aloe Vera Gel, Aloe Vera Juice, Aloe Vera Spray Dried Powder
Chemical Constituents
Aloe vera leaves contain barbaloin, chrysophanol glocoside and the aglycone, aloe-emodin. The mucilage of the leaves contains glucose, galactose, mannose and galacturonic acid in addition to an unidentified aldopentose and a protein with 18 amino acids. Aloe vera plant contains aloesone and aloesin. Chemical analysis has revealed that this clear aloe vera gel contains amino acids, minerals, vitamins, enzymes, proteins, polysaccharides and biological stimulators.
Medicinal Uses
The plant is bitter, sweet, cooling, anthelmintic, aperient, carminative, deobstruent, depurative, diuretic, stomachic, emmenagogue, ophthalmic and alexeteric. Aloe vera juice is used in dyspepsia, amenorrhoea, burns, colic, hyperadenosis, hepatopathy, splenopathy, skin diseases, constipation, spanomenorrhea, vitiated conditions of vata and pitta, abdominal tumours, dropsy, carbuncles, sciatica, lumbago and flatulence.
It also is used for helminthiasis in children and is a purgative, anthelmintic and emmenagogue. Aloe vera is used for local application in painful inflammations, chronic ulcers and catarrhal and purulent ophthalmia.
COSMETIC USES
Aloe Vera has unique, anti-aging formulations to maintain healthy, fresh-looking skin. The aloe vera plant's healing powers are most widely touted for being able to treat skin conditions. These conditions include psoriasis, shingles, and others associated with itching; in addition, cuts, abrasions and burns are said to benefit from topically applying the leaf's gel to the affected areas.
The uses of aloe vera -- that is, its efficacy -- stem from its active ingredients. These substances harbor anti-inflammatory properties, which may explain why it has been reported to alleviate the pain and swelling associated with itches and burns. Aloe Vera gel has unique, anti-aging formulations to maintain healthy, fresh-looking skin. Its Cosmetic action is antinflammatory, soothing, toning, moisturizing, protective.
During the end of the seventies Aloe vera gel became very popular in the USA as a moisturizing ingredient in cosmetics and its popularity has grown to such an unprecedented extent that it is now the most widely used ingredient in skin care products and can be found on the ingredient list of virtually all cosmetic products. Even dog or cat creams contain Aloe and you can now buy tissues impregnated with Aloe.
Also in the Far East Aloe is a popular ingredient in skin care products as well as in health drinks. Now its popularity is also coming to Europe where more and more well known companies have started to add Aloe to their established products and also introduced special Aloe vera product lines.
The great success of Aloe vera as a commodity for use in nutritional foods and cosmetics is due to the proper stabilizing procedures that enable processors to store and ship the Aloe vera Gel without fear of spoilage throughout the market places of the world.Research conducted around the world leaves little doubt that certain biochemical properties of Aloe will be proven facts. Such attributes as moisturizing and penetrating properties are known, but the attributes such as its healing abilities and analgesic action to bacterial activity has not been clearly defined and documented through properly controlled scientific research and testing.
The gel stimulates cell growth and as such enhances the restoration of damaged skin. It moisturizes the skin because it has a water holding capacity. This moist on the skin also has a cooling effect. As a drink it protects the mucous membrane of the stomach especially when irritated or damaged.
Aloe Vera consists for 99.3% of water. The remaining 0.7% are the solids that consist for a large part of polysaccharides of the glucose and mannose type. Together with the enzymes and amino-acids in the gel they give the gel the special properties as a skin care product.
The gel stimulates cell growth and as such enhances the restoration of damaged skin. It moisturizes the skin because it has a water holding capacity. This moist on the skin also has a cooling effect. As a drink it protects the mucous membrane of the stomach especially when irritated or damaged.
These Aloe Vera Products are used in following applications:-
Facial Moisturizer
For clear, healthy skin, use plain aloe vera gel in place of your usual moisturizer. Its healing properties will help soothe your skin and prevent breakouts. If your skin tends to be very dry, you may wish to spray on a little bit of rosewater after applying a generous layer of aloe gel to your skin. You can also blend a small amount of aloe vera gel with rosewater and the contents of one vitamin E capsule in a small, clean cosmetics jar for a great dry skin moisturizer!
Hair Gel
This gel has a great consistency for use as an all natural setting gel that won't damage your hair with harsh chemicals. This works especially well on curly hair that needs a bit of smoothing and taming.
Do-It-Yourself Body Glitter
Aloe gel is an excellent base for home made body glitter. Just put a few ounces of the gel into a clean cosmetics jar, and mix in ultra fine cosmetic glitter until you get the desired consistency and sparkle! Some recipes suggest adding a small amount of glycerin and some don't, so it's up to you.
Sunburn Gel
As summer approaches and the sun heats up, be careful not to get sunburned! Everyday exposure to the sun can damage your skin. It's recommended that you wear a sunscreen whenever you are outside. You may not always remember and if you happen to find yourself with a mild sunburn, keep some aloe vera gel handy. Why pay tons of money for commercial after sun creams? Apply a generous layer to sunburned areas to soothe the pain and prevent peeling or scarring. It is also wise to apply aloe vera after any exposure to the sun to keep your skin healthy and smooth.
Minor Cuts and Scrapes
Apply aloe gel to minor cuts and scrapes to help draw out any infection, soothe pain, and prevent scarring. Again, if you think it may be serious, check with your doctor. .
Insect Bites
Applying aloe vera gel to an insect bite can help much in the same way as with cuts and scrapes.

3.Arrowroot, West Indian Arrowroot (Maranta Arundinacea)
Useful parts: Arrowroot, Arrowroot Powder, Arrowroot Fruits
Chemical Constituents
Moisture,crude protein, fat starch, dextrin and sugars, crude fibre and ash.
Cosmetic Uses
Used in talcum powders and hair dyes. Added to moisturizers as a thickening agent and to help active ingredients penetrate the upper levels of the skin. Is used in cosmetics to help moisturizers penetrate the skin. A fine, white powder. May have other uses similar to cornstarch.
A lovely, soft powder used to make our body powders silkier and smoother. A very fine white cosmetic grade powder. May be mixed with cornstarch 1:3 to provide an alternative and safer powder than talc. Has great moisture-absorbing properties. Softens skin, absorbs moisture. In cosmetics it is used to help moisturizers penetrate the skin, and to thicken water based products. Arrowroot has long been used in biscuits and for making clear glazes for fruit pies.
The powdered starch derived from tuberous rhizomes of the Maranita arundinacea plant. Used in place of talc (which is synthetic) in making body powders, arrowroot is light, soft and absorbent. It can also be used to help dry up blemishes, rashes, or other sores or wounds.
An ingredient in dusting powders and hair dyes made from the root starch of the plant. Arrowroot was used by American Indians to heal wounds from poisoned arrows. No Known Toxicity.
Most often used as an ingredient in powders, this nutritious starch from the root of the plant was used by aboriginal peoples to heal wounds from poisoned arrows (thus the name). Non-toxic. Can also be used in the kitchen for arrowroot cookies or as a tasty alternative to other starches, especially in stir frys. Product of Thailand.
Arrowroot is made by grinding the thick rhizomes into a starchy powder that is used as a culinary and cosmetic thickening agent or boiled in water to make a thin gruel. This is a soothing, nutritious food for convalescing children and elderly people, and for those recovering from gastroenteritis. It is mixed with dried chamomile as a prickly heat treatment. The root can be candied as a sweet.
The rhizomes of this plant contain an edible starch, which is eaten widely in the West Indies, South-East Asia and South Africa. Arrowroot can grow to about 2 meters in height and is propagated from the tips of the rhizomes. When the leaves have started to wilt, 10 to 12 months after planting, it is dug up, its rhizomes removed, peeled and grated in water. The resultant powder is dried but later purified again by several more washings. The product is almost pure starch. It is used as a thickener for soups, sauces and puddings, especially custards. It is especially easy to digest and is, therefore, used in baby foods and diets for invalids.

4.Ashwagandha, Winter Cherry, Indian Ginseng (Withania Somnifera)

Useful parts: Ashwagandha Roots, Ashwagandha Extracts, Ashwagandha root powder, Ashwagandha seedsChemical Constituents
Roots contain several pyrazole alkaloids. Withasomnine and steroldal lactones, withaferin A and withanolides. They also contain starch, reducing sugars, hentriacontane, glycosides, dulcitol, withaniol, an acid and a neutral compound. Withaferin is a bacteriostatic and antitumerous agent.
Cosmetic use: nourishing, toning, moderately stimulating.
Uses
The tuberous roots are astringent, bitter, acrid, somniferous, thermogenic, stimulant, aphrodisiac, diuretic and tonic. They are useful in vitiated conditions of vata, leucoderma, constipation, insomnia, tissue-building and nervous breakdown. The leaves are bitter and are recommended in fever, painful swellings and ophthalmitis. A paste of the roots and bruised leaves are applied to carbuncles, ulcers and painful swellings.

5.Calendula, Calendula Petals, Pot Marigold and Petals (Calendula Officinalis)

Useful parts: Calendula Petals, Pot Marigold, Marigold Petals, Oil
Chemical Constituents
Triterpense, Resins, Bitter glucosides, Volatile oil, Sterols, Flavonoids, Mucilage, Carotenes.
Cosmetic Uses
Calendula petals can be used to make a nourishing skin cream or cleanser, and a strong infusion made from marigold petals can be used to lighten hair. Flowers are used for hair rinse, herbal bath for stimulation to aid circulation and sooth skin. Combine with chamomile and comfrey for an all-purpose soothing mix for all skin types.
Good in bath or facial mixtures. Used in the bath is considered stimulating. Cosmetic Flower Add petals to creams and baths for cleansing, healing and softening the skin. Aromatic Pungent to sweet aroma, deters flies. Calendula used both internally and externally has been found to be one of the single most useful herbs in skin care. It is useful for cuts, abrasions, wounds, bruises, fungal infections, rashes and insect bites. The flowers were used on a large scale by surgeons during the American Civil War to treat wounds and there it received its highest recognition. Used in a massage oil it is said to help get rid of cellulite.

6. Chamomile (Maticia Chamomile)

Useful parts: Chamomile Flowers
Skincare Benefits of Chamomile
include soothing and softening the skin, alleviating rashes, abrasions, and burns. Even more serious skin conditions as eczema may respond positively to topical chamomile ointments or lotions. It has anti-bacterial properties as well, which may help faciliate healing of various infections.
Cosmetic Uses
Chamomile, closely related to the daisy, has become one of the most popular herbal remedies in the world, with an extremely broad range of applications and uses, both internally and externally.
For example, it is used in a great many cosmetic creams and lotions, and combined with other herbs such as lavender to create aromatic bathing experiences. When used in such external manners, it is prized for its volatile oils. A great and powerful herb that tones, has a calming quality, improves tissue regeneration and soothes the skin.

7. Centella, Brahmi, Indian Pennywort, Gotu Kala (Centella Asiatica)

Useful parts: Centella Extracts, Centella Leaves, Centella Plant, Centella Powder
Chemical Constituents
Asiaticoside. madecassoside. brahmoside. bicycloelemene, centelloside. indocentelloside, oxyasiatiocoside, thankuniside. asiatic acid, betulinic acid. centellic acid. madecassic acid. centellose. kaempferol. hydrocotyline. phellandrene, vitamin C, linamarase. triterpenoid trisaccharides.
Cosmetic Uses
Centella asiatica has been used traditionally in the management of skin disorders. The extract has also been included in anti-aging creams and other topical formulations useful in retarding free radical mediated degenerative changes in the skin.
The extracts from Centella asiatica, a sub-tropical plant, find their application in superior anti-ageing cosmetics and in nurturing creams for sensitive and dry skin. Further applications are in the treatment of stretch marks and cellulitis. Cosmetic action of Centella is toning, emollient, purifying, epithelizing.
Standardized extract from Centella asiatica contains triterpenoid saponins (8.0% triterpenes, with a minimum of 0.5% asiaticoside). The Centella Asiatica and plum extracts provide elasticity and smoothness, for a youthful, fresh skin.
Plant extracts from the Centella Asiatica strengthen the capillaries in the skin. With regular use of the ACTIVE FUTURE day care, your skin rapidly becomes fresher, smoother, firmer and enjoys a youthful glow and new energy and radiance.
Tropical plants have been being used in traditional beauty care and in medicine for centuries. Centella asiatica (Gotu Kola) also comes from the sub-tropical regions. A legend about this extraordinary plant has it that if the Bengal tiger injures itself, it will waltz into the Centella asiatica and devour the leaves, the sap healing its wounds. Based on this legend, Centella Asiatica is also known as Tiger Grass.
Gotu Kola when added to a facial mask to rejuvenate and regenerate the skin and strengthen the tissues. Centella Asiatica has long been recognised for its healing activity. The principal modes of action of Da Wan ointment are related to the ability of Centella Asiatica to influence the inflammatory process in the wound healing cascade and its ability to promote Type 1 and Type 3 collagen balance. The immature thickened wound is characterised by a prolonged inflammatory stage and an abundance of Type 3 collagen. The promotion of Type 1 collagen production and the winding down of the inflammatory process is directly influenced by Centella Asiatica, as manifested by improved wound healing and scar formation. This inflammatory modulation property of Centella Asiatica may stop the conversion of the myofibroplasts, the cell type known to be associated with thickened, keloid type scars.

8. Cucumber, Cucumber Plant, Cucumber Seeds (Cucumis Sativus)

Useful parts: Cucumber, Cucumber Plant, Cucumber Seeds, Cucumber Fruit
Chemical Constituents
The serial parts of the cucumber plant contain a 14 a-methyl-phytosterol, a- and ß-amyrin, multiflorenol, isomultiflorenol, 24, methylenecy-cloartenol, cycloartenol, triucallol. Presence of a cytokinin-binding protein, isophentenyl adenosine trialcolhol is also reported in the cotyledons of var. 'Guntur'.
Cosmetic Uses
Cucumber including cucumber seeds and cucumber fruit is excellent for rubbing over the skin to keep it soft and white. Cucumber fruit is cooling, healing and soothing to an irritated skin, whether caused by sun, or the effects of a cutaneous eruption, and Cucumber plant juice is in great demand in various forms as a cooling and beautifying agent for the skin. Cucumber fruit has soothing effects on the skin and improves moisture retention. Cucumber soap is used by many women, and a Cucumber wash applied to the skin after exposure to keen winds is extremely beneficial. Emollient ointments prepared from the Cucumber plant were formerly considerably employed in irritated states of the skin, but they have been largely superseded by non-fatty cosmetics. The most frequently used preparation of Cucumber plant and Cucumber fruits at the present time is the cosmetic preparation known as Cucumber Jelly, which is used as a soothing application in roughness of the skin, etc. Cucumber consists of a jelly of tragacanth, quince seeds or some similar mucilaginous drug, flavoured with Cucumber juice, which imparts to the preparation a characteristic odour.
Used as a skin lotion
Soothing, cooling, toning Facial
Simmer half a peck of quince blossoms covered with water for an hour; cut 2 large cukes of cucumber into very thin slices and mince; put in pan with blossoms and boil for 5 minutes; when cold, pour into bottles. Use by smearing on face and leave for 10 minutes before washing.

9. Dandelion, Blow ball (Taraxacum officinale Weber)

Useful parts: Dandelion, Dandelion root, Dandelion Fruits
Chemical Constituents
The frug contains a bitter crystalline principle, taraxacin and a crystalline substance, taraxacerine; the phytosterols-taraxasterol and homotaraxasterol besides saponin. The milky sap contain cerylalcohol, lactuce-roltaraxacin, and choline. The root yields inulin, tannin and some ethereal oil; the leaves contain vitamin C and the flowers xanthophylls. Also contain Potassium and Vitamin A.

Cosmetic Uses
Dandelion root is known to be an excellent blood cleanser, specifically for the liver, as well as a mild laxative. Dandelion by Benefit is a pinkish powder that makes you look very fresh, makes your skin glow and Hoola, also by Benefit, gives you a suntanny look but it's very light





10.Hibiscus, Hibiscus Flower, Red Hibiscus, Rose of China (Hibiscus Rosa-Sinensis)
Useful parts: Hibiscus Flower, Hibiscus Plant, Hibiscus Leaves
Chemical Constituents
Taraxeryl acetate, beta-sitosterol, campesterol, stigmasterol, cholesterol, erogosterol, lipids, citric, tartaric and oxalic acids, fructose, glucose, sucrose, flavonoids and flavonoid glycosides. Hibiscetin, cyaniding and cyanin glucosides. Alkanes.

Cosmetic Uses
In Ayurvedic medicine, hibiscus petal is was used to stimulate thicker hair growth and to prevent premature graying, hair loss and scalp disorders. It acts as a natural emollient hair conditioner and can be used in hair washes, treatments and vinegar rinses for the hair. Use it in combination with brahmi and amla extracts. It has also been long used as a mild shampoo in for babies.

Hibiscus extract visibly promotes even tone and texture to skin affected by cellulite. Hibiscus extract is used throughout Polynesia, Southeast Asia, and Central and South America for creating an infusion to cleanse, soften, and soothe baby's hair and scalp. Formulated with ultra-light kukui oil to detangle and hibiscus extract to calm and seal the hair for maximum sheen. The flower extracts to prevent unwanted pregnancies at an early stage.

Chinese and Indian women have traditionally boiled the flowers and leaves of the hibiscus, then mixed the infusion with herbal oil before applying it to their hair as a stimulant to the growth of luxurious tresses. While the chinese use the hibiscus flower's juice as an ingredient in black dye for the hair and eyebrows, Indians include hibiscus flower juice in a famous herbal oil and conditioner which is now bottled and sold throughout eastern India under the brand name Jaba Kusam. One reason for the widespread popularity of this oil is its effectiveness against dandruff. Hibiscus rosa sinensis flowers China rose Paste Shampoo's.

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis are boiled in water to produce an infusion which is then mixed with a herbal oil to be applied to the hair as a stimulant for the growth of luxurious tresses. Hibiscus flower juice is now included in a herbal oil and conditioner sold throughout Eastern Indian under the name Jaba Kusam. This formulation is reputed to be particularly effective against dandruff.

Hibiscus (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis; Malvaceae) most commonly known as the "shoe flower" is a native of Asia, specifically China, India and the Pacific islands. The plant species name "rosa-sinensis" means "Chinese rose." It is called "shoe flower" because the flowers were traditionally used to polish shoes in Jamaica and some African countries. Hibiscus has been named the "Queen of Tropical Shrubs" perhaps because it is the most outstanding ornamental shrub that is planted in the tropics as specimen plants or grown as colorful hedges along the roads and highways.

Traditional use of the flowers and leaves in India include burning them in ghee to produce a black dye used to blacken eyes and eyebrows. In Hawaii, the flowers are worn on women's hair and around the neck as garlands. In India this flower is seldom used for decorating hair perhaps due to availability of more fragrant flowers of other plants for hair decoration. Hibiscus Rose is rich in mineral and vitamins flower that grows widely in oriental countries. Their petals are used to calm and soothe inflammation.

Hibiscus comes originally from eastern India. Precious hibiscus extract from the plant's distinctive calyx-shaped yellow flowers is known for its soothing and protective properties. In ancient times it was used to produce perfumes and refreshing balms. The juice from the petals is used in China as shoe-blacking and mascara. A good quality fibre is obtained from the stems. In warm sub-tropical areas the fibres can be up to 3 metres long, but in Britain they are likely to be much shorter. The fibre is used for coarse fabrics, nets and paper. Plants are often used for hedges and screens, though since they are not very cold hardy they are not suitable for this use in Britain. Hibiscus flowers makes a nice addition to this tea, giving it a lemony flavor and a very attractive burgundy color.

11. Ginger, Dried Ginger (Zingiber Officinale)
Useful parts: Dried Ginger, Ginger Root, Fresh Ginger, Ginger Rhizomes
Chemical Constituents
a-Curcumene, a-curcumene, B-D-curcumene, a-bergamotene, B-and camphene, y-bisabolene, B-bourbornene, d-borneol and its acetate, clamene, d-camphene, car-3-ene, a-cedrol, citral, citronellol.
Cosmetic Uses
Ginger, when included in soaps, warms the skin. Use it sparingly and in ground form only. A stimulant and anti-irritant, its warming, soothing properties are very beneficial to the skin. Sometimes used as a fragrance. Ginger is an excellent ingredient for bath oils and other cosmetics. Analgesic. Commercially, ginger is also used as a fragrance in cosmetics and other products such as air fresheners. Giner is traditional aid for motion sickness and digestion when diluted with food or edible oils. Can be diluted with massage oil and applied to skin for warming effect.

12. Jasmine, Jasmine Flower, Catalonian Jasmine (Jasminum Officinale, Jasminum Grandiflorum)
Useful parts: - Jasmine Flower
Chemical Consistuents
Linalyl acetate, benzyl benzoate, benzyl alcohol, geraniol, nerol, 1-a- terpineol, d-and di-linalool, and alcohol with an odour reminiscent of B, y-hexenol, farnesol, nerolidol, an unidentified alcohol, which plays an important role in the fixation of odorous principles, eugenol, p-cresol, creosol, lactones with lasting and fruity odour, bensaldehyde, jasmone, and unidentified ketone, benzonic acid, methyl anthranilate and indole.
Cosmetic Uses
Jasmine is best known for the delicate and captivatingly sweet fragrance of its flowers, which are frequently used in religious ceremonies in India and in Asian and Mediterranean countries. The extracted oil of the Jasmine is used in a wide range of soaps, cosmetics, and perfumes. Pure Jasmine oil is very rare and expensive, as many petals are needed to obtain even a small quantity of the essential oil. The best Jasmine oil is collected at night when the scent is strongest.
Jasmine oil is warming and smoothing oil used to revitalize and stimulate the skin. It is an oil used in perfumes because of its wonderful aroma. Derived form the oil of jasmine flowers. Used as ingredient in perfumes. Used for its wonderful sweet aroma in perfumery Jasmine flower oil is important in high-grade perfumes and cosmetics, such as creams, oils, soaps, and shampoos. Jasmine is beneficial for the skin, reducing problems, such as dry, greasy, irritated or sensitive skin (its good for dry, sensitive skin, especially when there is redness or itching). It's flowers are used in Jasmine tea and other herbal black and green teas. The roots and leaves of some Jasmine species have been used in folk medicine as an anthelmintic, active against ringworm and tapeworm, and its also used to treat muscle spasms, sprains, catarrh, coughs, hoarseness, laryngitis, uterine disorders, labor pains, frigidity, depression and nervous exhaustion.

13.Lavender Oil, Lavender Flowers (Lavandula Angustifolia)
Useful parts: Lavender Oil, Lavender Flowers
Chemical Constituents
Volatile oil containing over 40 constituents, including linyalyl acetate, cineole, linalool, nerol, borneol, Flavonoids, Tannis, Coumarins.
Cosmetic Uses
Research also suggests Lavender Oil has a balancing, harmonising effect on the emotions and also on the skin making it excellent for use in cosmetics and toiletries where it balances the production of sebum from the oil glands making it beneficial for dry or oily skins for psoriasis, acne, eczema, seborrhoea and spots. It is also credited with cell-rejuvenating properties. Lavender Oil is also recognised as being an excellent treatment for burns of any kind, apply a small amount, neat, to the burn area for relief and healing. Lavender Oil should be kept out of reach of children at all times, and should never be taken internally.

Lavender has all the traditional uses of a herb and many reported uses as a therapeutic agent in aromatherapy etc. Fresh lavender bunches - used in craftwork to produce wreaths, lavender wands and floral arrangements that are then dried Dried lavender bunches - for decoration, and hung in closets as linen insect repellents Stripped dried lavender flowers - traditionally used as pot-pourri, and in sachets as a moth deterrent and drawer freshener Lavender essential oil has been used to:

Lavender oil can be used in cosmetic bases to provide natural perfume and aromatherapy benefits. It is used extensively to perfume products in the soap and cleaning industries The aromatic oil is used in toilet water, cologne, and perfume. Lavender also is used in bath products and stimulating, cleansing facial steams. It is said to repel mosquitoes. It can flavor vinegars and jellies. Decorative uses include floral arrangements, wreaths, and wands. Lavender is said to have some medicinal qualities.

Massage - the most used essential oil in the aromatherapy industry is lavender Perfume - lavender essential oil is and has been for more than 150 years, a base fragrance for the perfume industry.

Sunburn - a solution of lavender water can be sprayed onto the reddened skin.

After Shave - Lavender Dew is most refreshing.

The best known active components in lavender are geraniol, cineole and coumarin. These ingredients have a strong cleansing and germicidal effect and are believed to be particularly valuable for the treatment of inflammatory conditions and pain. Lavender also brings swift relief from digestive problems and various skin irritations..

14. Lemon Grass, Ginger Grass, Sere Grass (Cymbopogon Citratus)
Useful parts: Lemon Grass, Lemon Grass Oil, Lemon Grass Live Seedlings
Chemical Constituents
The whole plant contains an essential oil consisting of critral, limonene, isopulegol, citronellic acid, geranium acid and a-camphorene.
Uses
The entire plant possesses antiseptic, antiferbrile and stomachic properties. It is used in treating coryza, influenza and pyrexia. It is also prescribed against dyspepsia and vomiting and as a carminative, using three to four drops of the essential oil, diluted in water. Used externally to treat eczema. The essential oil is used as an insecticide against mosquitoes and as a deodorant.

15.Mint, Spearmint, Mentha Spicata, Garden Mint, Lamb Mint (Mentha Spicata)
Useful parts: Mint Oil, Spearmint Oil, Mentha Leaves, Mentha Oil, Mentha Spicata, Mint Crystal Chemical Constituents
Major components in the spearming oil are carvone, dipentent, dihydrocarveol, dihydrocarveol acetate, and limonene.

Cosmetic Uses
Mint oil is commonly used for medicinal, culinary and cosmetic purposes. Mint is well known for its ability to ease indigestion and upset stomach. The menthol in mint can help clear sinuses and relieve cold symptoms. In some cases, mint is used to alleviate migraines and fever. It is best to consult a physician before self-treating any potential ailment or symptoms.

Mint is Aromatic, cosmetic, culinary, and medicinal. Fresh or dried mint leaves scent sachets and potpourris. Spearmint is used in baths to refresh and cool skin, in facials to cleanse the skin, and in lotions. Mint oil has wide uses in tooth paste, mouth wash, chewing gum, candy, hair oil, perfume, cigarettes and cosmetic products.

Mint oil can be found in a wide variety of common household products, ranging from tea to toothpaste. The oil is gathered via a distillation process whereby the mint leaves are steamed, allowing natural oils to surface. It can take hundreds of leaves to produce just a few teaspoons of mint oil, but just a couple drops can be extremely powerful. Mint oil is also frequently added to massage oil, lotions and shampoos.

Many renowned chefs include mint oil in their recipes to add flavor. It is also widely used in candy, cookies, jellies, and of course, chewing gum. The juices and drinks use freshly crushed mint leaves. Mint imparts a clean, refreshing taste, making it a popular ingredient in many types of foods. The home fragrance industry has capitalized on mint as well. Mint oil is often used in potpourri, sachets and room sprays. It is usually combined with other fragrant herbs such as lavender or bergamot and lends a revitalizing quality.

16.Rosemary (Rosmarinus Officinalis)
Useful parts: Rosemary Leaves, Rosemary Flower
Chemical Constituents
Volatile oil, containing borneol, camphene, camphor, cineole., Flavonoids, Tannins, Rosmarinic acid, Diterpenes, Rosmaricine.
Cosmetic Uses
Use an infusion as a rinse to lighten blond hair, and to condition and tone all hair. Try mixing an infusion half and half with shampoo to strengthen hair. An infusion can also be used as an invigorating toner and astringent. Rosemary added to a bath strengthens and refreshes, especially when used following an illness. Contains antioxidants which are oil soluble. Undiluted it should be thick, sticky and brownish/green. The aromatic oil is added to soaps, creams, lotions, perfumes, and toilet water.
Use the dried leaves as potpourri and in sachets to scent clothes and linen and deter moths. Rosmary is grown as a companion plant for cabbage, beans carrots and sage. It helps to deter cabbage moths, bean beetles and carrot flies.

17. Rose Petals, Rose Oil (Rosa Centifolia, Rosa Damascena)
Useful parts: Rose petals, Rose Oil, Rose water.
chemical Constituents
Essential oil, Querctin, Kaempferol and cyaniding from whole plant, cyaniding 3, 5- diglucoside from petalsm. Detection of citronell, nerol, geraniol and phenylethanol in essential oil. Flowers contain a bitter principle, tannin matter, fatty oil and organic acids. Hips contain the pigments lycopene. ? -and y-carotenes, rubixanthin, zeaxanthin, xanthophylla and taranthin.
Cosmetic Use
Rose is good for most skin types and is used in a wide range of cosmetics. Rosewater is a natural cosmetic made from Rose oil, Alcohol, and distilled water. Used to make cold creams and lotions and other cosmetic uses. may be used in potpourri as a pleasant cent. Mix with vegetable glycerine for moisturizing use. Mostly perfumery, also in toilet preparations, lozenges and toothpaste. Homes uses in butter, syrup, jams and honey. Rose water is used in desserts, pastries and cakes.
Medical
Internal - asthma, high blood pressure, bronchitis, slow circulation, diarrhea, dysmenorrhea (painful menstruation), cough, fever, fluid retention, Indigestion, insomnia, palpitation, stress, urinary tract infections.
External
abrasions, boils, burns, fragile capillaries, post natal depression, dermatitis, eczema headache, insomnia, poor memory, rashes, sores, oral thrush, tinea.
Rose Water
Rose Water is the by product of producing rose essential oil. It has skin softening, toning, soothing and healing properties. Was used during Victorian times to soothe the skin. Rose water is nature's finest beauty tonic. It is perfect after a facial or cleansing. If you rinse your hair in rose water, it gives it a natural shine by closing the cuticle.

Rose oil
Genuine distilled rose oil is extremely valuable, requiring approximately 4000kg of flowers to produce 1kg of oil. It is considered superior to the cheaper solvent-extracted rose "absolute" but is often adulterated with cheaper oils such as Palmarosa or synthetic components such as geraniol and citronellol. Our rose oil is steam distilled and guaranteed free of any solvents and adulterants. This product can be used for a variety of products and markets: Medicinal, Cosmetic and Fragrance.
To make a mouthwash from rose petals, pour 1/4 pint white wine vinegar over 1/2 pint freshly picked, scented rose petals and mash together for five minutes. Cover and leave in a warm place for two days, then strain and dilute 1 tablespoon with 7 fl oz water.
Rose Cold Creams
4 Tbsp olive oil, highly perfumed rose petals, 1 Tbsp purified beeswax, rain or soft water. Place the olive oil in a double boiler and heat slowly until it becomes very warm. Immerse as many rose petals in the olive oil as can be packed in firmly. Cover and leave for several days. When the oil has absorbed the perfume from the petals, strain it and keep on one side until needed. To make the cold cream, heat the beeswax slowly in a pan until it is reduced to a liquid, then blend in the perfumed oil. Remove from the heat and stir until the mixture cools. Add the soft water, a few drops at a time, until the cream reaches the consistency that you most prefer. Pot and label.
Hand Lotion
3 Tbsp rosewater, 3 Tbsp glycerine, 3 Tbsp alcohol, 1 Tbsp lemon juice, 1 Tbsp orange juice, 1 Tbsp cider vinegar. Mix all the ingredients together. Bottle, shake well and label.
Rose-root Water
Place 1 lb of root in a saucepan with a lid and add 1 pint of water. Simmer over a low flame for 1 hour (with the lid on), then strain into bottles when cool and keep under refrigeration.
Blends With
most floral essential oils, frequently with jasmine, also blends with anise, geranium, ginger, bergamot, black pepper, chamomile, fennel neroli, patchouli, sandalwood, vetiver and ylang ylang.


18.Sweet Violet, Violet Flowers, Viola (Viola odorata)
Useful parts: Violet Flowers, Violet Leaves
Chemical Constituents:
Violate flower and root contain an emetic principle named 'voiline'. It forms salts with acids. It is volatile oil. Roots contain several coloring matters-ionone and ionine. The plant also contains glucoside, methol salicylic ester and saponins.
Cosmetic Uses
The plant has long been cultivated for its perfume, as well as being added to cosmetics, drinks, sweets, and syrups, and long thought of as the plant of ancient goddesses. Syrups are made from infusions and used to treat coughs. Mouthwashes are also made from infusions and used for mouth and throat infections. Flowers are good for skin rashes and irritant eczema. Decoctions from the flowers are used as an eyebath and mouthwash. They are also crystallized and added to desserts.
There is considerably more to the common sweet violet (Viola Odorata) that meets the eye, although this hardy little perennial with exquisite flowers and broad, heart-shaped leaves is certainly attractive ... be it in the woods or in a shaded garden. However, it has also been used through the ages in medicinal preparations, culinary concoctions, perfumes, cosmetics, and dyes.
Sweet Violets either fresh or dried are used in teas or baths for the soothing and slight astringent quality. Violets contain salicylic acid and are extremely high in vitamins A and C. Violet flower water (1/4 c. Violets steeped in warm spring water for 30 minutes, strained, bottled and refrigerated) is used on the face as a tonic and healing spritz for all sorts of facial afflictions. It is wonderful as an after-shave water or even as a wash for baby's skin. If the leaves and flowers are macerated in oil, strained and then beeswax added, this cream is excellent as a daily application to remove cosmetics, or can be used daily on your face and hands for dry skin.

19. Patchouli Oil, Patchouli Seeds, Pogostemon Patchouli Pellet (Pogostemon Cablin)
Useful parts: Patchouli Seeds. Patchouli Oil,
Chemical Constituents
Patchoulol.
Cosmetic Uses
The uses to which patchouli oil is put to include cosmetics, perfumes of all kinds, toiletries (with soaps being a major consumer of this oil), breath refreshners especially in the East (40 metric tons of patchouli are used by India's pan and tobacco chewing industry), incense, etc.
The oil is used in the East generally to scent linen and cloths, and it is believed to help prevent the spread of disease. In China, Japan and Malaysia the herb is used to treat colds, headaches, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, abdominal pain and halitosis. Its use sometimes is said to cause loss of appetite and sleep and nervous attacks. The Chinese, Japanese and Arabs believe it to possess prophylactic properties. Extensively used in cosmetic preparations, and as a fixative in soaps, and perfumes. Extensively used in the food industry, in alcoholic and soft drinks.
When used in Massage and Bath Oil Blends, Patchouli reduces anxiety and depression and produces a warming and sensual feeling. Patchouli is an ingredient.

20. Natural Tea Tree Oil / Tea Tree Leaves (Melaleuca alternifolia)
Useful parts: Natural Tea Tree Oil, Tea Tree Leaves
Chemical constituents
Natural Tea Tree Oil is volatile oil, terpinen-4-ol-40%, gamma-terpinene 24%, alphaterpinene 10%, cineol 5%.

Medicinal Uses
Tea Tree Oil is antisceptic, Anti bacterial, Anti fungal and Immune stimulant.

Cosmetic uses
The compounds in natural tea tree oil benefit the skin and are non-irritating. The tea tree essential oil contains several important compounds, including terpines, cymones, pinines, terpineols, cineol, sesquiterpenes, and sesquiterpene alcohols. Tea tree oil is nice to have on hand for its proven abilities. Natural tea tree oil recommended for external use only in poultices and other skin cleansing applications.
Those properties make tea tree essential oil a popular ingredient in shampoos, creams, skin cleansers, and other external cosmetic applications. Tea tree leaves are widely used in Facial Treatments, Hair Care, Nail Care, Oral Hygiene, Personal Hygiene, Shaving, Skin Care. Use natural tea tree oil after waxing or ear piercing to sanitise and anaesthetize. Excellent Natural Preservative.
Tea Tree Oil has a long history of use as an herbal medicine. In recent years, biochemists and aromatherapists defined the therapeutic nature of tea tree essential oil, and as a result, tea tree has become widely popular as an alternative remedy.
The key to natural tea tree oil's medicinal effectiveness is two chemical constituents found in the oil -- cineole and terpinen. Although both are bactericidal and germicidal, cineole can be a powerful skin irritant. Therefore, tea tree oils with low cineole and high terpinen contents are preferred. Because the terpinen found in tea tree oil is so mild, it can soothe cuts, scratches, sunburn and cold sores. Since it is non-irritating, you can apply a single drop of the oil directly to minor injuries once or twice a day. Some of the most effective aromatherapy uses for tea tree oil are cosmetic in nature.
21. Liquorice (Glycyrrhiza Glabra)
Useful part: Liquorice Root, Liquorice Root Extracts, Liquoric Extracts - 10%, 20% (Glycyrrhizic acid)
Chemical Constituents The characteristic aroma of the volatile oil of liquorice is due to the presence of a mixture of estragole, anethole, eugenol, indole, y-nonalactone and cumic alcohol. liquorice or sweetwort it contains mainly isoflavonoids, flavonoids and phytosterols. Isoflavonoids have an inhibitory effect on the synthesis of melanin, the dyestuW of pigmentation and tan.
Cosmetic uses: Licorice Root
Great facial steaming herb used to open and soothe the pores so that other herbs may cleanse and medicate them. Liquorice being anti-inflammatory, astringent, anti-microbial, free radical scavenger, UV absorption, helps reduce the appearance of skin discoloration. Licorice root is said to be very soothing to dry, irritated skin. I have seen this extract in very expensive dermatology treatments to soothe skin after AHA and retinol treatments.

Glycyrrhizic acid derived from liquorice root. It has antibacterial properties, which make it particularly suitable for use in deodorants. It relieves inflammation, stems harmful bacterial growth and is often used in cosmetic preparations to combat impure skin. AHA apricot seeds kernel oil and liquorice help to re-texturise and smooth the skin leaving it feeling supple and comfortable.

Licorice root extract is used in Ayurvedic medicine as a treatment for inflammations, burns, wounds, abscesses, boils, and skin problems in general. It was either used as a poultice or made into a paste to be applied directly to the skin. Liquorice extract inhibits melanin biosynthesis while scavenging free radicals (antioxidant). Treats acne and calms allergic skin.

In the confectionery industry, water extracts of licorice roots are mixed with sugar, corn syrup and flour to make many types of licorice candy
22. Turmeric, Polished Turmeric Rhizomes, Unpolished Turmeric Rhizomes.
Useful part: Turmeric Rhizomes, Long Turmeric (Curcuma Domestic, Curcuma Longa)
Chemical Constituents
The rhizomes contain the pigment curcumin, and essential oil consisting of sesquiterpenes, zingiberene, D-a-phellandrene, tumerone, dehydroturmerone, y and a-alanto lactone curcumene, cineol.
Cosmetic Uses
Turmeric is natures internal cosmetic. It is an excellent natural antibiotic which strengthens digestion and helps improve intestinal flora. Turmeric purifies the blood, stimulates the formation of new blood tissue, promotes proper metabolism by correcting both excesses and deficiencies. Turmeric helps counteract, pimples, acne, boils, skin diseases, pale skin, anemia. It is an inexpensive and indigeneous beauty aid. Considerable quantities of turmeric are converted as 'kumkum' used for tilak by Indians. Smearing with turmeric paste cleans skin and beautifies it. Its antiseptic and healing properties prevent and cure pimples. Turmeric is the major ingredient in curries and curry powders, contributing flavour as well as the characteristic yellow colour. It is also used in chutneys and pickles. In South East Asia, the fresh spice is much preferred to the dried. Turmeric has been used to add color in foods and cosmetics. It has a refreshing peppery taste and scent and goes well in salad dressings, adding a beautiful, yellow color.
Turmeric Extract has been used traditionally improve skin complexion, promote proper metabolism, increase energy, eliminate diseases caused from weakness of blood.
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